A short story is a short fictional/
true prose narrative. It usually has a single incident, a single plot and deals with only a few
characters. Edgar Allan Poe defined a short story as the one that can be read at one sitting of half an hour to two
hours. It differs from an anecdote in
its use of plot. As against a novel which generally deals with multiplicity of plots and characters, a short story usually
concentrates on a single plot, conveyed in only
one or a few significant episodes and scenes.
Masters of Storytelling
The well-known American story writers
of the 19th century were Washington Irving (1783-1859), Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864) and Edgar Allan Poe
(1809-1849). Guy de Maupassanat
(1850-1904), a French writer, is considered as one of the masters of the short story. His technique of surprise
ending in a story was adopted by Anton Chekhov
(1860-1904), the Russian master of the short story. Other Russian short story writers include Nikolay Gogol, Ivan
Turgenev, Fyodor Dostoyevsky and Leo Tolstoy.
Components
of Short Stories
The short story is a work of fiction
that is usually writeen in narrative prose. It is often more pointed than longer works of fiction, such as novels or
epics. Short story writers use a
combination of creative imagination, personal expression and language skills to
create a story. Some of the essential
elements of a short story are given below.
Plot
Every story has a plot. It is the
sequence of events or incidents of which a story is composed. These events or incidents are interrelated as one thing
happens because of another. Thus, a
plot is a planned logical series of events: having a beginning, a middle and an end. Unlike a novel or an epic, a
short story usually has one plot so that it can be read in one sitting. There are five essential parts of the
plot.
§ Introduction
§ Rising action
§ Climax
§ Falling action
§ Denouement
Conflict
Conflict is an essential component of
the plot. It is the opposition of forces which bind one incident to another,
and makes the plot move forward. Conflict is not merely confined to open
arguments, but occurs in any form of opposition that the main character has to
face in the story. Within a short story, there may be only one central
conflict, or there may be one central conflict with many monor ones.
Depending on its origin, there are
two types of conflict:
External: It refers to a struggle with a force outside one’s self
Internal: It refers to a struggle within one’s self; a person must take
some decision, overcome pain, resist anger,
etc.
§
Human
vs. Human (physical)
§
Human
vs. Circumstances (classical)
§
Human
vs. Society (social)
§
Human
vs. himself/herself (psychological)
Title
A story is usually given a title
either after the name of the protagonist of the story or a particular incident
or theme in the story. The title can be a popular expression or harbor a hidden
meaning that unfolds later in the story. Titles can also be named after a
person or place. A title may come from an existing work or be a memorable line
from the story itself. The title should reflect the subject of the story,
without giving everything away. It is the ultimate headline.
Themes
The theme in a story refers to its
controlling idea or its central insight. It is the author’s underlying meaning
or main idea that is conveyed in the story. The theme may be the author’s
thoughts about a topic or view of human nature. Ambition, greed, love, fate,
jealousy, loyalty are some of the common themes in short stories. The author
makes use of various figures of speech to emphasize his theme, such as: symbol,
simile, metaphor and irony.
Allegory
and Symbolism
Allegory is a work of art which runs
on two levels—the surface level and the deeper level. It is a story in which
the author uses the characters, events or ideas on the surface level to bring
out the moral of the story. Symbolism means an indirect method of communicating
a deeper truth.
Irony
Irony is a language device in which
the real meaning is concealed by the literal meaning of the words. Very often,
there is a discrepancy between what is expected and what occurs.
Pathos
Pathos is a quality that makes people
take pity on others.
Simile
and Metaphor
A simile is a figure of speech
comparing two unlike things, often introduced with the word ‘like’ or ‘as’.
Even though similes and metaphors are both forms of comparison, similes allow
the two ideas to remain distinct in spite of their similarities, whereas
metaphors seek to equate two ideas despite their differences.
Allusion
An allusion is a figurative or
symbolic reference to something supposed to be known, but not explicitly
mentioned.
Setting
A story must have a setting. Setting
is the time, place and social reality within which a story takes pace. In other
words, the location and the background atmosphere in which a story takes place
is called the Setting.
Place: Where is the action of the story
taking place?
Time: When
is the story taking place? (historical period, time of day, year, etc)
Weather
Conditions: Is it a
rainy, sunny, or stormy day?
Social
Conditions: What is
the daily routine of the character? Does the story contain local colour
(writing that focuses on the speech, dress, mannerisms, customs, etc., of a
particular place?)
Mood
or Atmosphere: What
feeling is created at the beginning of the story? Is it bright and cheerful or
dark and frightening?
Essay Writing Skills
One of the most important skills expected
of high-school graduates is the ability to write clearly. Writing clearly means thinking clearly. Masterful
writing can open doors for success in
life. Remember good writing doesn’t happen overnight. It requires applying what you learn and refining your knowledge at
every step. The goal of writing isn’t to recapitulate
a topic; it is to write with poise, power, and flair. Strong writers elicit emotional responses. They explain. They
persuade. And they impress.
A good essay usually comprises one or more
of the following elements:
— Originality
— Enthusiasm
— A new way of looking at old views
— Clear and well-developed presentation
of a topic
— Assertion and proof that something is
true
A poor
essay:
—
Merely
restates views already stated elsewhere
—
Contains
tired clichés and overly simplistic vocabulary
—
Includes
irrelevant details
—
Is
unclear, unorganized, or boring
—
Contains
a lot of filler information and padding that is of little consequence to the
argument
The Process of Writing
Step 1. Prewriting
Step 2. Writing
a First Draft
Step 3. Sharing
Step 4. Revising
into a Second Draft
Step 5. Editing
into a Final Draft
Choosing a topic
§
Understanding
your audience
§
Understanding
your purpose
§
Free-writing
§
Brainstorming
§
Using
inquiry (wh-words)
§
Clustering
Mapping ideas
§
Guided
Free-writing
§
Venn-diagram
§
Idea
chart
§
Narrative
outline (My audience-my purpose-introduction-body paragraphs and conclusion)
Precis
Writing
The
main aim of précis writing is to give the gist of a passage. Summary questions
can take three basic forms:
- Total
Summary, where
you are asked to summarize a whole passage (all its main ideas) in a
specified number of words.
- Comprehension
Summary: this
is so called because it is sometimes disguised as a straightforward
comprehension question, but will often be recognizable by phrases such as
‘In a paragraph of 70-80 words, say what the author thinks of …” or ‘In
not more than 60 words, explain……..”. Obviously this, like the selective
summary, is usually short and
requires clear understanding and precise expression to produce an
effective answer.
ESSENTIAL SKILLS
- Use
of Reported Speech
Precis
writing means reporting briefly one person’s opinion or comments to another.
The use of the word ‘reporting’ is significant, because reported speech
(indirect speech) is used in most of the summaries.
- Making
Notes
All of us
have our own ways of making notes, but you can see from the specimen précis ular
sections of the passage, and the notes you put under each heading must be
directly relevant to that theme.
Do not spend
more than five minutes constructing notes, as they are only an aid to clear
thought. The will not count as a part of your summary.
- Condense
Information
While
trying to use as few words as possible you need to be précis. Any slight misuse
of words can lead to ambiguity,
misunderstanding or inaccuracy. Consider the following sentence:
The Board
of Directors decided that it was necessary to have a person appointed to act on
their behalf in Kathmandu.
What word
can be used to replace the phrase in italics? The word to economize space is ‘representative’.
As part
of condensing passages, it will often be necessary to leave out non-essential details. The problem here is to identify what
is necessary. All you can do is to decide what
the most important facts are and concentrate on them. Look at the following sentence, and the division shown:
In the
market/ she purchased a few clothes/ which were new/ and a new pair of shoes/ without bargaining with the shopkeeper.
There are
five separate segments here. Only you can decide which the essential ones are, but it is likely that a shortened
version would read
She purchased a new few clothes and a pair
of shoes without bargain.
BASIC APPROACH
·
Summary Focus
Once you know
what you are aiming to do—summarize the whole passage or selected themes—you
should read it through and quickly the original marking off the sections which
are relevant to your answers, or dividing the whole passage into ‘topic areas’.
At the same time, make essential notes to indicate which the most important
ones are.
·
Exclusion
While
you select information, the following types of material can be left out:
i. Any supporting information which is not
absolutely essential to an understanding of the main
idea
ii.
Any digression, i.e. information not
related to the points you are trying to put across
iii. Repetitions
iv. Comparisons and examples (until they are
essential to a clear understanding or appreciation of a
point)
v. Non-essential details
vi. Any descriptive passages
Once
you have some notes to use as a guideline, you can begin drafting your answer.
Obviously, you might still need to refer back to the original extract to clarify your thoughts and
understanding.
·
Use Your Own Words
As far as
possible you will be re-expressing the author’s ideas in your own words.
Remember:
i. Do not add any information which is not
given int eh extract
ii. Do not alter the meaning or emphasis of
what the author says.
iii. Do not give your own opinion (unless
asked specifically)
iv. Do not simply list a number of points.
·
Check-List
Once you have
drafted your précis in the rough grid, you must check the following points:
i. Does it answer the question?
ii. Is the information presented in a logical
order?
iii. Is there a clear development of the
theme?
iv. Is all the information relevant?
v. Is the style suitable?
vi. Are you within the stipulated number of
words?
vii. Is your language clear, straightforward
and easily understandable?
viii. Is all grammar, punctuation and spelling
correct? Once you feel you have completed
all of the above draw a fair grid (set of line sand columns, number them) and rewrite the rough
précis correctly into the fair grid and only
after that is completed you must draw a single line across the rough précis to enable the examiner to correct and
mark the correct fair précis.)
go through the specimen summary
assignment given below. Analyze it carefully
and see if you can identify where the principles outlined in the rest of the chapter have been applied.
Q. In
not more than 60 words, describe a beaver’s castle and how it builds it as well as makes it frost-free.
|
The
|
Beaver
|
made
|
a
|
dam
|
|
which
|
was
|
firm
|
and
|
broad.
|
|
Their
|
castle
|
was
|
made
|
by
|
|
skillfully
|
fitting
|
logs
|
together.
|
The
|
|
upper
|
logs
|
were
|
put
|
loosely
|
|
together
|
so
|
that
|
air
|
could
|
|
pass
|
through
|
to
|
the
|
interior.
|
|
They
|
fell
|
trees
|
and
|
take
|
|
to
|
their
|
dwelling
|
to
|
make
|
|
a
|
frost-proven
|
dwelling.
|
They
|
change
|
|
whole
|
landscape.
|
They
|
created
|
a
|
|
new
|
reason
|
because
|
of
|
work.
|
SELF-TEST KEY
ü There are many adults at the
conference.
ü Anita threw water at him by mistake.
ü Please don’t make such mistakes.
ü All of the participants are discouraged
to write their answers in ink.
ü Make straight your line or get into
the straight line.
ü Walk slowly or else you’ll fall.
ü Would you mind speaking English here?
ü Bow your head; it’s the time for Morning
Prayer.
ü Bobbie returned my novel.
ü An 8.5 Richter earthquake struck last
night.
ü I’m an honest student at GEMS.
ü More than 90 per cent of the students
have passed English paper.
ü I go to the grocer’s once a week.
ü Amar married an American girl.
ü I would like to ask all of the
English teachers to be frank. (ask-means request)
ü My friends suggested to me to do a
lot of reading.
ü Anupama’s books fell down the stairs.
(touching surface)
ü Tuleshwor stood first in the
marathon.
ü What much mark have I scored?
ü Class 5 girls need to do their hair
properly.
ü Many of the schoolchildren like
purple very much.
ü Mr Magar’s family moved into a new
apartment in Kathmandu.
ü Only seven students have been
permitted to sit the re-examination. (take)
ü Thank your Mr Tamang for your class.
ü The school management are discussing
the promotion of teachers.
ü Could you please turn the fan off?
ü Srijana hasn’t covered her exercise
book properly.
ü Anju is taking IELTS this July for
overseas study.
ü Have you ever been to Pokhara?
ü Participants talked educational
issues at the conference last week.
ü Mr Lamichhane needs some thumbtacks
in order to put this paper on the board.
ü Class X students hereby are informed
to get their hair cut in a proper manner.
ü Can you all look ahead for a while?
ü A guardian lodged a complaint against
an English teacher.
ü Aslesha said that she left her
grammar book at home.
ü Dipti has got a lot of homework for
the summer break.
ü I saw an accident this morning.
ü When will you make corrections on
paper?
ü Bimal always jumps the queue/ pushes
in.
ü Anajan didn’t talk nonsense either.
ü Two pupils are searching for Mr Bin.
ü Grade X students are making noise at
the back in the school bus.
ü I told you to complete all of the
assignments yesterday, didn’t I?
ü Samridhi studies in class 5. She is a
talented student.
ü My uncle lives in the Philippines.
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Writers’ Diary, 2014
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